Method chapter

We had to finish the method chapter as part of the master thesis seminar. I didn't have a lot of difficulties in writing it and I have gotten positive feedback from my mentor. That made me feel good about the entire thing. I will post the entire thing here, even though it is quite long.

Quality in electronic literature
Theoretical and practical background for approaching the problem

“...while it may be difficult to define literary quality in principle, it is not so difficult to demonstrate it in practice” (van Peer, 2008 p.25).

This is the main approach that I will be using in my master thesis: try to determine quality by close reading the works of electronic literature which have received praise and which have been critically acclaimed. The readings by famous critics such as Katherine Hayles, Astrid Ensslin, Alice Bell, David Ciccoricco, J. Yellowlees Douglas, George P. Landow, Michael Joyce, Raine Koskimaa, Anja Rau, Jill Walker and others will be used as basis for my analysis and will be complemented with other theories such as Modernist and Postmodernist theories of literature, as well as methods of determining quality in print fiction as presented in Quality of Literature : Linguistic Studies in Literary Evaluation (2008) edited by Willie van Peer. Other theories that are useful for the close reading of the multimodal works is Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's semiotic approach to multimodality. Despite the fact that their theory is not directly linked to literature, they offer ways of interpreting images and other modalities used in digital texts in general and these can help me in interpreting and in evaluating the formal and semantical value of images, sounds and other modalities in electronic literature.

The works that have received most attention are the works of the first generation, also known as the hypertext generation. Michael Joyce's “afternoon: a story” (1990) and Shelley Jackson's “Patchwork girl” (1995) are the two works that will be used as representatives of this generation. The former is considered to be the first work and the latter the epitome of the hypertext novel. Many critics have written about these two works and in addition there are numerous books about hypertext theory in general and literary hypertext in particular which will be used to try and find out the characteristics of these masterpieces and what makes them such. Taking into consideration the attention that these works have received it is not so difficult to find analysis, appraisals and appreciations written about them.

When it comes to hypertext theory, there are two waves that posit quite different opinions about hypertexts. The first-wave hypertext theory has a very positive and idealistic view when it came to writing about the impact that hypertext was going to have not only for literary texts but also for other texts in general. George P. Landow (1997, 2006), Jay David Bolter (2001) and Robert Coover (1999) are the most renowned representatives of this theory. Landow considered hypertext as the embodiment of poststructuralist theories about multilinear texts, texts with no unity and the power of the reader and the death of the authority of the figure of the writer. These views have been greatly criticised and put into question by the second-wave hypertext theorists such as Espen Aarseth (1997), Ilana Snyder (1996) and Marie-Laure Ryan (2001) among others. They emphasized the limitations that the hypertext with its nonlinearity, discountinuity submit the reader more than they liberate him. These opposite positions are important in reading the above-mentioned works by analysing the level of empowerment that we acquire when reading these text in comparison to print texts. Even though the second-wave theory is obviously more accepted now, we can't ignore the impact that Landow and the others sharing his views have had in the field of hypertext theory.

In comparison to the first generation of electronic literature, the second has a less developed body of theoretical work dedicated specifically to it. While the first generation is mainly comprised of text, the second generation does not put the word into the background but nevertheless it supplements it with other modes such as sound, image, videos. The level of multimodality is of course different in different works and even though some of them might be organized by using hyperlinks, there are others that are more linear and resemble more videos than hypertexts. The two works that have been chosen to be analysed for this generation are Caitlin Fisher's “These waves of girls” (2001) which is a hypermedia fiction, “hypertext multimedia” (Nielsen quoted in Ensslin, 2007, p. 21) and Kate Pullinger and Chris Joseph and participants' “Flight Paths” (started in 2007) called “a networked novel”.

These waves of girls has won the Electronic Literature Organization Award of 2001 for the best fiction and this is the main reason for choosing it. Two articles are going to be the main point in establishing the qualities of this fiction work which actually have two different views on this work. Anja Rau's (2001) article “Web/Fiction/Design: A brief beta-test of this year’s winner of the ELO Awards, Caitlin Fisher’s These Waves of Girls” and Raine Koskimaa's (2004) “These waves of memories. A hyperfiction by Caitlin Fisher”. While Rau maintains that the weak points of this fiction is its limited use of technological affordances, Koskimaa defends the shabby interface by interpreting it as a meaning making strategy. This is an interesting point when it comes to quality in digital fiction and these two articles present some interesting questions about the work that I will try to explore in my work. What do we put more weight into, the literary or the technological in the evaluation of the works of electronic fiction? Since this is literature we are talking about, should we place more importance on the literary than on the technological?

“Flight paths” on the other hand was created as a contribution project from many people about stories of stowaways ending up in British suburbia. The reason for choosing this work is that is very different from the others mentioned so far in that its reading path is linear and simple, the story is simple to understand as well. The work combines, music, text, videos, images in a very haunting way to draw us into the story and to get to know the two characters. One of the dangers of choosing a work like this is that it hasn't been as widely analysed by critics as the other works and this makes it harder to call it a masterpiece on the same level as the ones above. On the other hand it will open up for new horizons of analysis because it is a collaboration project, it involves a different reading strategy than the ones mentioned above and also it has a higher degree of multimodality. As Kate Pullinger says herself: “Flight Paths” is an attempt to open up the research and writing processes involved in writing a novel to collaboration and discussion from the earliest stages. It’s an attempt to write across media and across the network” (Pullinger, 2009).

The third generation is the one that has less works than the others and it is characterised as the fiction that uses the latest technological achievements and in which the technology takes control of the reading process. The term “cybertext generation” which Ensslin (2007) uses has been coined by Aarseth (1997) which he defines as: “The concept of cybertext focuses on the mechanical organization of the text, by positing the intricacies of the medium as an integral part of the litrary exchange” (p.1). The two works that I will be focusing are Stuart Moulthrop's “Hegirascope” (1995/1997) and Kate Pullinger's “Breathing wall” (2004). In Moulthrop's work the lexias change according to the speed determined by the programme and not by the clicking of the reader and I will try to explore the consequences of that. On the other hand parts of Pullinger's work are controlled by the rate of the reader's breathing measured by a microphone and that is why Ensslin (2007) calls it a “physio-cybertext” (p. 111). This work is innovative in many aspects and especially in its usage of the technological advances.

The works have been chosen both for their renowned reputations and also because they brought something new to the field of electronic literature but both of these reasons are of course intertwined: they are famous because they are innovative and creative. “Flight paths” is the one who has not been read as widely as the others but this work is easy to read and therefore I can use it to focus upon the other elements that make this work appealing. Kate Pullinger is a famous author of both print and digital fiction, among her famous works is also “Inanimate Alice” (2009) which is an award-wining digital work and according to my opinion the works that I have chosen here are no less fascinating.

While it may sound that I will only analyse the works and their characteristics, their themes and characters, their language and the use of technological affordances, this is the approach that will be used in order to analyse the aspect of quality in the different works of electronic literature. Even though it may seem as a very difficult question we must bear in mind that evaluation is something that we engage in whenever we read a book, hear a song, watch a play or film and electronic literature is not different. The critics when reading works, or writing reviews always engage implicitly or explicitly in evaluation, in expressing whether a work is good or not and why and how. This is what I want to do in this master thesis: put forward and emphasise the traits that make these works good and this will be done by combining theories and criticism from many different fields in order to capture the multiplicity of the works used as examples. The challenges are obvious here but it is my opinion that by focusing on particular works I will have a more tangible approach than a purely theoretical one which would sound more abstract.

There can't be denied that there are other works that would be worth looking into when talking about electronic literature and among these are Stuart Moulthrop's “Victory Garden” (2001), Judd Morrisey's “The jew's daughter” (2000), Jane Yellowlees Douglas “I have said nothing” (1994), M. D. Coverley's “Califia” (2000), Michael Joyce's “Twilight: a symphony” (1996) but due to limitations that had to be imposed on the master thesis not all works that were worthwhile have been included.


“Extended analytical criteria”

...for those of us who have a keen interest in the nature of literary texts themselves, the question in what way formal and semantic elements of the text may contribute to positive or negative evaluation in an intriguing one (van Peer, 2008, p.3).

van Peer writes about print literature but it is not difficult to apply his views for for electronic literature as well. Of course in the latter we face other issues as Coover (1992) has said: “How does one judge, analyse, write about a work that never reads the same way twice?”.

Ensslin (2007) in her remarkable book about canon of literary hypertext disagrees with such critics that maintain that we need a completely new theory and body of criticism in order to deal with the growing body of works in literary hypertext she takes this stand: “... I take the view that hypertext does not require a new form of criticism, but rather an extended set of analytical criteria, which result from its augmented sense of mediality” (p.26). When it comes to creating the canon she supplies the categories by which we can determine whether a work belongs to the canon or not. These categories are not very different from the quality requirements that were put forward by the Electronic Literature Organization, nevertheless they are more extended and more detailed.

The categories are: (1) production (relating to circumstances of authorship); (2) object (relating to the subject matter); (3) form (linguistic and structural devices, including navigational strategies); and (4) reception (relating to the reader in the widest sense, which includes lay readers, critics, editors and pedagogues alike) (p.63)

She continues to explain this categories in detail which I will summarize here. When it comes to production she places importance on “innovation and originality” (p.63) and the usage of the technological affordances:

Evidently, the mere ability to use sophisticated hypermedia software and mark-up language does not necessarily result in a literary or multimodal masterpiece. Instead, a central formal concern will be transmedialization, i.e. the meaningful combination of hypermedia (in the case of second- and third generation hypertext mainly), and more generally, the implementation of intertextuality ub tge sense of textual and semiotic interplay (p.63).

The reason for using Ensslin's quote here is to justify the theoretical approach chosen for this master thesis and that is the multimodal analysis as developed by Gunther Kress will be useful here and also the Postmodern theory when it comes to intertextuality. By combining these theories in reading the works of the second and third generation we will be heading in the right direction when it comes to describing their characteristics.

When it comes to the subject matter, this is not a lot different from print literature work, these works should contribute to increasing reader's world view, understanding of emotions and characters. How this is achieved by the electronic literature works remains to be seen but Ensslin mentiones the self-referentiality as an aspect that must be taken into consideration in the thematic analysis of the works (p.63).

When it comes to form, Ensslin talks a lot about the navigational structures and how they are used by the authors for aesthetic purposes (p.63). This is especially important for the first generation of electronic literature.

Reception is quite important in my work here because as mentioned earlier I will be basing the evaluation criteria upon the readings of the most prolific critics in this field.


Ensslin (2007) and Bell (2010) comfort the reader of this new literature when they maintain that we do not need a completely new set of theories, approaches in order to understand, appreciate the new media literature. We only need to extend our view and take into consideration the new elements and try to fit them in our readings and analysis. The foundation is there, now we only need to continue building.

Slowly "progressing"

Even though there is a lot of time left before I need to finish writing my master thesis I am worried. The time is flying, some days I am working more, some less and then there are days in which I feel that I am just reading without any clear view of what I am looking for or why I am reading that specific book or article. I guess it is all part of the process of writing a thesis. I need to be more patient...

Master thesis presentation

This what I have managed to write so far as part of the masteroppgave seminar. I am still in the beginning and there is a lot to read and research before I write more but this was obligatory so I couldn't postpone it. On the other hand the fact that I had to write something helped me in thinking about my master thesis even more.
This is the text I submitted.

Quality in electronic literature

Introduction


Digital literature, network fiction, hypertext fiction, cybertexts are just some of the terms used to describe what Katherine Hayles (2008) calls “digital born” by which she means “...digital object created on a computer and (usually) meant to be read in a computer (p.3). Electronic literature has been around for quite a while, the first work Michel Joyce's afternoon: a story a started circulating in 1987 but was published in its entirety in 1990. Even though there is quite a lot written on this topic it is still considered a relatively new field of study that is more in the background rather than in the mainstream of literature. Eskelinen (2008) in his paper “Electronic literature without a map” laments the lack of influence that this literature has and the lack of interest for this field and especially lack of audience (or readers):

Compared to many other cultural niches, there are neither crossover successes attracting wider audiences, nor popular forms and genres of electronic literature. This condition situates electronic literature in a position similar to various avant-garde movements, although without the latter’s cultural impact and influence.


Research questions

Katherine Hayles defines different generations of electronic literature works based upon the techniques they have used. The first generation which uses mainly hypertext technology for building up their stories and uses a programme called Storyspace which provides the tools needed for creating their works. The previously mentioned work of Joyce afternoon: a story is the first work of this generation and widely praised, another one that deserves our attention is Shelley Jackson's Patchwork girl (1995). The second generation uses the World Wide Web and all its affordances in the creating process and one of the main elements is multimodality, the combination of words, pictures, videos, sounds to create meaning. The works that I will be looking into are Caitlin Fisher's These waves of girls, Kate Pullinger's Flightpath, Judd Morrisey's The jew's daughter. The third generation, which Ensslin calls cybertext generation doesn't have the large body of works that the previous one has but nevertheless its main characteristic is that the machine (code) takes control of the work and controls the reading. Among the works that I can mention here is Stuart Moulthrop's Hegairoscope.

The question that will guide me in writing this thesis will be with defining what do we mean by quality when we talk about electronic literature and obviously here we must take into consideration both the literariness and also the ways in which the story is put together like the way the different elements of it communicate with each other. By looking at the works mentioned above that are considered as the masterpieces in electronic literature I will try to find out what qualities make them such. This will be contrasted with less known works in order to pinpoint the second rate works and what makes them such when compared to the first-rate ones.

Electronic Literature Organization when giving awards for the best works have put forward some criteria that must be fulfilled and these will be of help to orient myself when answering the questions about quality. These criteria are:

Innovative use of electronic techniques and enhancements.
Literary quality, understood as being related to print and electronic traditions of fiction and poetry, respectively.
Quality and accessibility of interface design.

(http://www.eliterature.org/Awards2001/criteria.php)

While trying to answer the question about what is quality when we talk about electronic works I anticipate that there will be other questions that will need addressing and that have to do with the new literariness that digital works are developing. This has been particularly addressed in David Ciccoricco's book “Reading network fiction”. Other questions regarding difficulties and gratifications that the reader might encounter en route will be of interest because a good digital work is supposed to be both challenging and at the same time pleasing, otherwise the reader might not continue reading it. This is a particular challenge in the electronic literature field because each work is unique and despite the fact that some works might share certain elements, they still have to be unique in order to stand out (and fullfill the ELO criteria)

Electronic literature poses other challenges when it comes to studying or analysing it and these are connected with finding a theoretical body that takes into consideration all the different aspects of digital works. Since this kind of literature combines many fields within itself, we cannot expect to have a clearly stated set of theories ready for use. Therefore this paper is more of an adventure than a set out journey and this is the reason that it is at the same time exciting and scary.

The background for choosing this topic

“For those of us interested in the present state of literature and where it might be going, electronic literature raises complex, diverse and compelling issues” (Hayles, 2008, p. 43).

I have always been interested in literature, particularly English literature since I have studied it in the bachelor level and I think that this new manner of creating fiction works is something that I would like to immerse myself into by both reading them and trying to find the elements and the characteristics that make them unique and worthwhile spending time in reading/watching/experiencing them. The World Wide Web creates an opportunity for everybody to express their creativity in different ways, nevertheless it is important to have the knowledge of how to separate the wheat from the chaff. While print literature has an established history and its classics have withstood the test of time, electronic literature lacks this and therefore to try to find quality and to try to answer questions about it seems to me to be a practical issue as well as an interesting one.

My master thesis

So last year of master studies that are going to be spent reading about and writing my master thesis. I am both looking forward to this and I am a little bit scared.

I am going to write about quality in digital fiction. Not something that I am an expert on but hopefully I will become better and better as I read more on the topic.

Mbretresha Kohe - Troja

Mretresha kohe dje boll mire na tregoj tha neser per neve ndryshe ka me kan
Nese nyjen para syve sot na nuk dojna me zgjidh

Neser kjo nyje ne fyt ka me na u lidh.

Poststructuralism and Hermeneutics

This is the first part of my assignment, and I am not satisfied with it at all. I am also not satisfied with this semester (with myself(. Feel like the topics are very difficult and I feel a little bit hopeless... :(

Poststructuralism and Hermeneutics

Poststructuralism and hermeneutics are two lines of thought, each comprised of many different approaches. That is one of the difficulties when writing about them. This paper will first very briefly address the main ideas of each of them and then move towards two important writers, Derrida for poststructuralism and Gadamer for hermeneutics, contrasting and exposing their points of view.

Hermeneutics, permits a range of interpretations, some of which may be seen as being closer to the truth. However, no interpretation is ever final. Hermeneutical understanding never arrives at its object directly; one’s approach is always conditioned by the interpretations explored on the way. Whilst one’s understanding may become “fixed” in an explanation for the time being such fixity is always contingent. In choosing to act as if my explanation is correct, the world may resist my actions in a slightly unexpected way, giving rise to a new understanding, resulting in a revised explanation, providing a new context for acting and so on. This circularity between explanation and understanding, termed the “hermeneutic circle”, is central to hermeneutic method (Brown,1997. p 48).

Hermeneutics is not simple, it is understood differently by different scholars making it contradictory sometimes (Slattery, 1995, p. 104). It is comprised of different directions that emphasize different aspects and explanations of interpretation and understanding and who focus upon different things. It has its roots in the Renaissance with the interpretation of the bible and the classical texts but it had been developed into a philosophical direction in the period of German Romanticism. After that it was not interested only in the interpretation of texts but also interested in the human life and the existence itself. The paper will elaborate this further when we deal with Gadamer's points of view, developed with the influence of Heidegger (the ontological turn of hermeneutics) (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2005).

For example if we take objectivist hermeneutics which emphasizes that the part of the text can only be understood as part of the whole (objectivist hermeneutic circle) (Alvesson and Sköldberg, 2009, p. 92). Also by their name it is understood that they thought there was a certain objectivity to the hermeneutics and to their finding of meaning (ibid., 95). While on the one hand the natural sciences can explain their theories by facts, by contrast the social sciences are marked by interpretation (Brown,1997. p 48).

On the other hand there is alethic hermeneutics, which concentrates upon preunderstanding and understanding. What the alethic hermeneutics agree upon with the natural sciences is that both the social sciences and the natural sciences are: “irrevocably marked by interpretation all the way down to the level of data, and by preconceptions in the generation of theory” (ibid., 96). Part of the alethic hermeneutics is the existential hermeneutics developed by Heidegger and continued by his pupil Gadamer, both very influential figures in this field of study.

Poststructutalism is seen as one of the schools within postmodernism, and separating these two is “of limited value” (Alvesson & Skölberg, 2009, p.182). This school of thought began to develop in the 60s and it was most popular in the 80s, with such thinkers as Michael Foucault and Jacques Derrida, who didn't refer to themselves as poststructuralists at all (ibid., 182). Foucault was famous for his discourse theory and writings about power and knowledge which marked his thinking. Derrida on the other hand is known for his deconstruction theory which we will be dealing with later in this paper.
As the name itself suggests poststructuralism is a criticism that builds upon structuralism. What they have in common is that both place importance on language, but in different ways. On the one hand structuralism stresses the fact that language has an underlying structure that lies beyond people and with which you can explain and understand cultures (which according to them were structured as language) (Barker, 2008, p. 15). The poststructuralist school of thought doesn't believe that the researchers can say anything objective about reality and that language is embedded in intertextuality, one text refers to another and so it goes on indefinitely, making language metaphorical and difficult to pinpoint in any direction. Poststructuralists and postmodernists offer “the possibility of multiple interpretations” ( Alvesson & Skölberg, 2009, p.183). It is this fact of interpretation that offers us an understanding of poststructuralism based upon hermeneutics “poststructuralist hermeneutics”:
“... all discourses about postmodernism are interpretative and hermeneutic endeavours” (Slattery, 1995, p. 104).

Poststructuralist hermeneutics puts subjectivity in the foreground and undermines objectivity as non-existent in reality, “conceives understanding as an ontological (study of being) rather than an epistemological (study of knowledge) problem” (ibid., p.106). This is also the philosophical hermeneutics that Heidegger was interested in developing, emphasizing that in hermeneutics is interested in studying Being-in-the-World.

That 'reality' can be represented in many different ways is also a central theme, and that the ideal that several voices can be heard is a cherished one. The very idea of a truthful representation and interpretation is problematized and it is claimed that social science cannot in fact reflect 'reality'; in many variants even reality is problematized and human experience is itself discursively constituted, that is, it 'exists' in, rather than outside, language. In more radical variations on these themes, 'reality' is represented with a view to creating credibility and authority for a particular statement ( Alvesson & Skölberg, 2009, p.184).

At first glance it might seem that poststructuralists don't offer anything except for destruction of structuralists' point of view, offering no substitution for it themselves. But their theory of language they offer different ideas of subjectivity than what were known before them. They point out to the fact that we are locked in our subject positions by discourse (Foucault), which determine who has the power and who can speak on the other hand, and who cannot on the other. One of the main points that they make is decentering the subject and concentrating on language and discourse (ibid., 196). This gives the subjects less possibility for agency and in this point poststructuralism has been criticised by many. But on the other hand their point of view seeks to make clear that some dominant ways of talking about social practices (discourse) are not universally true but are only 'dominant modes of thought' (ibid., p.197).

Poststructuralism and Hermeneutics

Trying to get some ideas to write an assignment about post-structuralism and hermeneutics, but not getting anywhere. Been reading about it for two days and don't understand much. In order to understand Gadamer (who developed a more traditional hermeneutics) I have to understand Heidegger who is not an easy philosopher and also on the post-structuralists side I have to understand Derrida (deconstruction) :(
Right now I am feeling hopeless and don't understand much but...

I will post the assignment here but I have no idea if I will be able to finish it.

p.s I am not even enjoying Easter.

Michael Moore

I wrote this email to Michael Moore, I really hope he reads it and replies even though it says in his website that he receives thousands of emails:

Hi Michael Moore,

I hope you will read this because I want to correct you on the issue of Kosova that you addressed in your documentary "Bowling for Columbine". I enjoy your movies, and I think that what you are doing for your country is wonderful. I wish I had your talent to do the same for my small country with lots of problems called The Republic of Kosova (two years ago we declared independence).

In your movie you say that America bombed and killed civilians. This is what happened:
We had a war here during the 1999 and it was horrendous, civilians were massacred (three of my classmates from high school) and houses burned and a 800 000 people (in a country of two million people) had to leave their homes or be murdered (me and my family were among them). I still can't believe I survived. But all that didn't happen because of either USA or NATO (as you, using Serbian sources portray in your documentary). A person like you shouldn't use Serbian national TV as a source. They were used by the then president Milosevic and what they put there was to convince their people that what was happening in Kosova was America's fault. It was not, USA saved us and we are eternally grateful. I have no idea what is happening in Iraq or other places but I am just addressing the issue of Kosova since I was there when it all happened.

A books that can be useful for you if you want to know more about Kosova's history is http://www.amazon.com/Kosovo-Short-History-Noel-Malcolm/dp/0330412248/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1268141364&sr=1-2-spell.

If you don't have time for a history book then a short article in times will do just fine: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article3037002.ece.

As you can see these are British sources, not Albanian nor Serbian. They both can be biased, right? So please next time do not use biased sources that are used to manipulate people like the Serbs in Serbia and on the way managed to manipulate an American also. It would be a shame if they succeed.


Regards,
Shkurte

Foucault and Hermeneutics

Foucault didn't accept to be labelled as a post-modernist or post-structuralist. His ideas and methods were inspired in many instances by those of Nietzsche. When it comes to hermeneutics which is the science of interpretation, and for example objectivist hermeneutics seeks “understanding of underlying meaning, not the explanation of causal relations”. (Alvesson and Sköldberg, p.91)

As we have seen while discussing Foucault and his methods, his aim is not interpretation or explanation and he sees also the hermeneutics of suspicion which was developed by Freud, in which people we supposed to understand themselves as part of the problem and not the solution. Because Foucault saw that also the process of understanding oneself is interwoven with the power problem. Hermeneutics and other sciences contributed in creating “bio-power” that is the power of controlling the human beings.

“Bio-power can be described as «a set of historical practises which produces the human objects systematized by structuralism and the human subjects explicated by hermeneutics»” (Dreyfus and Rainbow, quoted in Alvesson and Sköldberg, p.254)

So bio-power is that power which is found in institutions such as schools, hospitals, etc.

Some points about Foucault

What I find interesting about Foucault is that he takes words like discourse, genealogy, archeology and uses them in ways that are different from the usual understanding. I think that is exactly what he tries to do, tries to challenge the way we see, think and interpret knowledge. He never provides us with clear definitions and it is my opinion that he does not believe in such things. He just tries to point out to things that are taken for granted and writes:

"The object, in short, is to define the regime of power-knowledge-pleasure that sustains the discourse on human sexuality in our part of the world." (Foucault, "The history of sexuality" Volume 1, An introduction (1976), p.11)

Discourse is used differently by Foucault, it the production of knowledge by language, it is a way of speaking about social practises, objects etc., that makes the other ways of speaking as unacceptable and untruthful. He also wrote that nothing exists outside of discourse and called people "docile bodies" that are ruled by discourse. In his later writings he changed this perspective somewhat but I will not go into that here.

"Discourse constructs, defines, and produces the objects of knowledge in an intelligible way while at the same time excluding other ways of reasoning as unintelligible. Foucault attempts to identify the historical conditions and determining rules of formation of regulated ways of speaking about objects, that is discursive practice and discursive formations.”

(Chris Barker “Cultural studies” (2008), p. 20)

Foucault

This time the discussion is about a famous French philosopher (postmodernist) Michel Foucault. His main writing deal about discourse, archeology (different definition) and genealogy. What characterizes him is that he does not give definitions or does not look at texts per se, he looks for the relation between power and knowledge and how they are interrelated.
I will post here some of my points from this discussion from the school's forum.

The role of standardization

So I would like just to write some things about the standardization of the language and the role it plays in the creation of identity. As Le Page and Tabournet-Keller write, making one dialect the norm, makes people believe that one way of speaking is better than the other. It creates groups whose dialect becomes the norm as the group with prestige and the other group whose dialect is marginalized as the powerless and uneducated group. Do the people who speak bokmål have more prestige than those who speak other dialects of Norwegian? I haven't noticed anything about this, on the contrary people who speak other dialects of Norwegian have told me that they don't attach any more importance to bokmål than to the other variations of Norwegian. Is this true? Maybe that explains the attitude that “meeuh” has to different variations of Norwegian that he uses.

Philip Riley in his book “Language, culture and identity” (not pensum, but relevant to the issue of standardization) writes about the importance of the issue of standardization of a language:

“Of all the linguistic factors contributing to the formation and expression of social identities probably the most prevasive is the complex social and historical process of standardization, whereby one or more language variety is codified and for that,... is considered as superior in many ways to non-standard variations.” (page 234)

He continues by saying that the standard language becomes the main language of the institutions, therefore it will be linked with power. What he emphasizes is that making one language standard compared to the other is the social and political conditions, and not something regular or special about the language that is standardized.

p.s This is one of the posts in the discussion I am doing at school.

Crisis over

The discussion day 1, almost over and it went much better than I expected. And I was in such a bad mood in the morning. But got to write more and more during the day. The topic is language, identity, how these two are interconnected, how we present ourselves through the language we use, variations and mixtures.
Another thing we have to discuss is the standardization of language, what that means for the group whose language is marginalized and how standardizations is done not because one dialect is better than the other, but because the sociological and political conditions.

Language and identity

Today I got the topic for the second discussion on the internet (we have two discussions on the internet for each subject). The teacher posts what he wants us to discuss and then the group posts their opinions. It is like a forum, but closed only to our group.
So, the topic is language and identity and we got a web discussion on scandinavian languages and we have to discuss the profile of one user on how his identity develops in here. I have read all we had to for this discussion and have no idea what the teacher wants us to do. And the funny thing is that I am the discussion leader. I am the one who is supposed to make the decisions about what we will talk about, what we will go deeper into.
So now I have all my material in front of me, a headache because of the frustration and just want to eat something.

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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I have to figure out this...

The official website of my studies

This is the official website of my studies and the deadline for application is the 1st of March.
It is a very interesting programme.

http://digkom.hihm.no

T.S Elliot

"So, here I am, in the middle way, having had twenty years
Twenty years largely wasted, the years of l'entre deux guerres
Trying to learn to use words, and every attempt
Is a wholly new start, and a different kind of failure
Because one has only to learn to get the better of words
For the thing one no longer has to say, or the way in which
One is no longer disposed to say it."

(East Coker, Stanza V)

Dictionary.com mistake

I always knew that euphemism is substituting a word that could be offensive, vulgar for one that sounds nicer. And when I heard the word dysphemism I immediately knew that it was the opposite. In dictionary.com (which I use very often), they put this definition of dysphemism, which is completely wrong: Dys⋅phe⋅mism noun 1. the substitution of a harsh, disparaging, or unpleasant expression for a more neutral one. 2. an expression so substituted. Eu⋅phe⋅mism noun 1. the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought to be offensive, harsh, or blunt. THIS SHOULD BE OPPOSITE. It just made me think of other words that I don't know, if they got other ones wrong. We should be so careful when we use these sites, double check and always make sure it is correct, especially with wikipedia. I did an experiment and added a sentence in one article (not important article) and it hasn't been deleted at all.

Hmm...

Reading in Norwegian (a language I have been learning for e year and a half), not the easiest thing to do. It requires time and effort. It's a challenge. I was reading about the debate about the word "neger" in Norwegian media. What was surprising to me is that most Norwegians think the word has no negative meaning and that they use it without being racist and without meaning any offence. It all sounds good, but lots of Africans living in Norway (some even born here) feel the word has negative connotations and wish that people would stop using it. The author of the book (Gullestad) thinks that a group can choose what they want to be called (fair enough, right?) and she proves with dictionaries and lexicon entries that the word has negative connotations after all. She wants people to stop seeing just the colour of a person and that we should notice other things about people. She tries to challenge the Norwegian way of thinking when it comes to dark skinned immigrants.By using words such as "we" and "them", she says that whiteness in Norway is made as a norm and that those people who have dark skin (even if born in Norway) cannot be Norwegian because they don't look like regular Norwegians do. I remember the first week I was in Norway and I was walking with a friend who is from Africa and he was talking and joking around and there was this old lady in front of us and when she turned around and saw he was African she put her hands in her head (as if to protect her). I felt bad for my friend and pretended like I didn't see, but he had noticed it and joked about it but I know it must have hurt him at least a little bit. The book challenges some ideas that are accepted as normal and that makes it interesting to read, it gives me new points of view and new things to think about.

How we use language?

I was reading a chapter in the Norwegian book "Det Norske sett med nye øyne" by Gullestad (my translation: The Norwegian seen with new eyes). It got me thinking how we use language, sometimes we divide people in groups "us" and "them", and we need the "us" to determine who we are and that it is used to affirm our identities. And those that are not "us" are seen as different and less valuable than us. In "us" we can see some differences but these differences are set aside in favour of our similarities and because we need to affirm our identities and without other people similar to us we can't do that.

What was interesting to read in the book was also that those people who are not agains differences or other people like imigrants use expressions and words that push forward the stereotypes and prejudices against the imigrants (this was quite interesting to realize).

Verbal Hygiene

Have been reading a book chapter about "political correctness". Quite interesting things and made me think about a lot about how we use language and how it can insult someone or discriminate.

Language can change attitudes and can change things that are generally accepted to be the social norm, as Cameron says, just ask the people who smoke.

Calling someone a bitch is different than saying madam. It conveys different messages and yes, how we speak also reflects how we think and changing that can also have an impact on our perception.

New semester

The spring semester has just started and I am both excited and a bit stressed about how it will go. The last semester has gone much much better than I had anticipated and I am quite surprised about it and happy of course. On the other hand, scarred that I will be disappointed if this one goes worse because the topics seem a bit more difficult.